Architecture as Nation-Building: Modernism and Independence in Africa

Sidi Harazem Thermal Spa / Jean-Francois Zevaco. Image © Dustywood

Launched in September 2024, the Rediscovering Modernism in Africa series joined a growing worldwide interest in this topic. Previously underrepresented in architectural discussions, the work of architects and researchers on the continent and abroad has continued to tell the story of these high-quality modern works of architecture. These buildings represent designers striving to create locally suited architecture using global concepts and technologies, coinciding with huge political changes as most African countries gained their independence.

International Fair of Dakar. Image © Iwan Baan

Rediscovering Modernism in Africa explored a multiplicity of themes under 'Modernism' in 'Africa.' Modernism here is understood as the architecture of the Modern Movement initiated by architects like Le Corbusier and Walter Gropius in mainland Europe in the early twentieth century. Together with the rejection of history, it was characterized by a focus on function, the dismissal of ornament, and the innovative use of new materials and structural capabilities. These made Modernism easily transferable to Africa, which, in the middle of the twentieth century, was going through a period of profound change and liberation from colonialism.

National Assembly, Lusaka, Zambia. Image © Lighton Phiri under CC by 2.0 license

Expressions of national identity, both internally and to the rest of the world, coincided with this period of Modernism. Notable examples include the national assembly buildings, some of which were built as part of the preparations for independence, as in Senegal, while others were built by well-established governments after the end of colonial rule, as in Zambia and Sudan. National museums also played a role. In Ghana, this was constructed in the run-up to independence in 1957, while in Sudan, it occurred much later in the late 1960s.

Newly independent nations fostered new diplomatic and trading relationships with their neighbors and the rest of the world. Thus, exhibition and convention centers, as well as hotels, came to the fore. The International Trade Fair Center in Dakar, Senegal, was constructed according to Modernist principles, but it was also an attempted expression of Asymmetric Parallelism. This was an aesthetic concept developed by the independent country's first leader and poet, Léopold Sédar Senghor, who emphasized the importance of culture as a means to unify the new nation. The Kenyatta International Convention Center in Nairobi, Kenya, opened in 1973 in time for a World Bank summit. Its architecture was intended to impress and also to reflect Kenyan tradition.

National Assembly, Lusaka, Zambia. Image © Lighton Phiri under CC by 2.0 license

Education featured prominently in government programs, especially with the establishment and expansion of universities. In both Ghana and Nigeria, for example, some of the most celebrated Modernist buildings are university buildings. Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew, proponents of Tropical Modernism, constructed numerous educational buildings in West Africa. Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology in Kumasi, Ghana, saw the establishment of the first school of architecture in the country and launched the career of architect and professor John Owusu Addo. At least two campuses in nearby Nigeria, the University of Lagos and Obafemi Awolowo University, saw concentrations of Modernist buildings of high quality.

The Examination Hall, University of Khartoum. Image © Mohieldin Gamal

The work of other individual architects was also explored, each exemplifying not just their personal life and design approach, but also the sociopolitical contexts in which they operated. Architects like Fry and Drew straddled the independence period, operating before and after the end of British rule. Similarly, Jean-François Zevaco, who was born to French parents, remained in Morocco for decades after independence, developing his own unique approach to brutalism. Across the continent in Sudan, Abdelmoneim Mustafa became one of the first locally born architects after finishing his studies in England, and was later dubbed the 'father of Sudanese Modernism'.

Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa / Abdelmoneim Mustafa. Image © Abdelmoneim Mustafa, digitized by Technocon Engineering Consultancies, under CC BY-SA 4.0 license

Modernism in Africa is a very broad topic. It encompasses nearly every building type across a continent that is culturally and climatically diverse. Yet, it remained underrepresented in architectural discussions, with interest growing at both local and global levels in recent years. The book African Modernism was published in 2015, and this oversight was lamented by its editor, Manuel Herz. Since then, two exhibitions on Tropical Modernism took place, one at the Venice Biennale in 2023 with a focus on African architecture, and one at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London in 2024. After this article series started, another book, Modernism in Africa, was published in late 2024. This is in addition to other more specialized publications, as well as countless initiatives by architects and researchers on the continent itself.

The time period being studied coincides with great changes on the continent. It is difficult to examine works of Modernism without considering colonialism and independence. On the one hand, the universality of Modernism (sometimes referred to as the International Style) facilitated its quick spread. It was also the architecture of choice for international organizations such as the United Nations. On the other hand, it was associated with self-determination and seen as symbolic of the new nation-states. This continuous dialogue between the local and the global, and the colonial and the post-colonial, permeates buildings built in this period.

Hotel Ivoire, Abidjan. Image © Iwan Baan

This can be seen in the architects of Modernism in Africa. After independence, architects from the former colonial powers still operated on the continent and produced some of the most notable works. These include Fry and Drew in Ghana, Godwin and Hopwood in Nigeria, and Henri Chomette in several French-speaking countries. These were supplemented by architects born elsewhere, such as Israel in the case of Arieh Sharon and Heinz Fenchel. Łukasz Stanek, in his book, Architecture in Global Socialism, notes that many built projects were designed by Scandinavian and Eastern European architects.

The archaeological garden at the Sudan National Museum. Image © Rawya Saeed

Architectural education played a part in this story. The first schools of architecture south of the Sahara (and outside South Africa) were established in 1957. Before significant cohorts were graduated and entered the profession, architects were educated abroad, and foreign-born architects established local firms. With most schools being established in this period, Modernism was cemented in the architectural culture of many countries. One exception was Egypt, which adopted Modernism in the 1950s for practical reasons in response to the growing population, with locally born architects like Sayed Karim, Naoum Shebib, and Mahmoud Riad.

Saint Catherins Church / Naoum Shebib. Image © Cairo Since 1900

As more attention is directed toward Modernism on the continent, what also becomes apparent is the state of neglect and underappreciation toward it. In some places, conservation law has not kept up with changing times and attitudes toward modern buildings. Demolitions have meant some gems are gone forever, while some refurbishments have permanently altered the buildings beyond recognition, such as the Nile Hotel in Kampala or the Hotel Independence in Dakar. However, there are examples of careful restoration projects. The Majestic Cinema in Zanzibar, after suffering dilapidation over the years, is employing a strategy of 'preservation through transformation', where new functions and vitality are introduced to the building. In Morocco, Jean-François Zevaco's iconic Sidi Harazem Spa is undergoing a sensitive restoration.

Drawings of the Sidi Harazem Thermal Spa displayed in the Qatar Pavilion at the Venice Biennale 2025, curated by Aurélien Lemonier and Sean Anderson, with contributions by Aziza Chaouni and others. Image © Mohieldin Gamal

The series of articles is by no means exhaustive. If anything, it has only scratched the surface, bringing together the works of researchers from many countries. Whilst multiple building types were explored, there are many that are worthy of study in the future, such as industrial, healthcare, and housing. Conservation and adaptive reuse projects offer extensions to the buildings' lives, and their stories—more such projects are expected as buildings start to age and as their quality and importance become more appreciated.

Cover of the Modernism in Africa book, published by Birkhäuser & Docomomo. Image Courtesy of Birkhäuser, Docomomo

This article is part of an ArchDaily series called "Rediscovering Modernism in Africa." Many buildings from the Modern Movement in Africa are of high architectural quality. Despite being several decades old and historically important, they have only recently gained attention in international discussions. This series explores this rich history. As always, at ArchDaily, we greatly appreciate our readers' contributions. If you have a project you think should be featured, please submit your suggestions.

Mohieldin Gamal                                                   

Mohieldin is a Sudanese-British architect based in London, interested in cities, modern heritage, and Africa.